Bodaghi M., Nezhad H.Y., Nikzad M., Bayreuther C.G., Nowakoski P., Koerdt M., Polle C., Krenz A., Maack B., May D., Park C.H.
Composites Part B Engineering, vol. 315, art. no. 113427, 2026
A comprehensive review of experimental, analytical, and modelling studies on permeability in cryogenic composite hydrogen tanks is presented, with particular emphasis on the integration of experimental observations and predictive numericall modelling to understand hydrogen transport at cryogenic temperatures (20 K–77 K). The review examines the fundamental thermomechanical drivers for cryogenic hydrogen storage and the technical challenges associated with composite tanks, including polymer matrix microcracking, residual stresses from thermal mismatch, polymer liner behaviour, and manufacturing-induced defects that collectively govern the formation and connectivity of leakage pathways. Experimental studies indicate that cryogenic cycling can lead to a ten to hundred times of or greater increase in effective gas transport (permeation/leakage) relative to undamaged or room-temperature conditions, driven by damage accumulation and crack opening displacement. These effects are strongly influenced by laminate architecture, ply thickness, stacking sequence, and liner material properties, demonstrating that damage-assisted leakage often dominates over intrinsic polymer permeability at low temperatures. The review synthesizes state-of-the-art experimental techniques for measuring cryogenic permeation and leakage, including specialized cryostats, high-sensitivity detectors, and in situ structural health monitoring, alongside analytical and numerical models that link microcrack evolution, network connectivity, and transport behaviour across scales. Particular attention is given to the limitations of existing test standards, challenges in calibrating and validating model inputs (e.g., crack density, crack opening displacement, inter-ply connectivity), and the emerging role of percolation-based modelling frameworks informed by experimental data. The paper concludes with an outlook on the development of integrated experimental–modelling methodologies, advanced liner and laminate designs, and standardized cryogenic permeability testing protocols as key enablers for safe, reliable, and low-leakage hydrogen storage in next-generation composite tanks.
